Inside a high-pressure sodium vapor lamp is a discharge vessel (burner), which consists of transparent alumina ceramics. The discharge vessel is filled with sodium and another noble gas. To protect and isolate thermally burner and some thick metal cable is pressed into balls or elliptical-shaped glass tube. Metal wires are also used to supply electricity. If the light is in operation, the temperature in the discharge vessel of about 1,000 ° C and pressure of the gas is very high, because of this they are named.

High pressure sodium vapor lamps are usually manufactured with the bases E-27, E-33 or E-40. These lamps must be operated with a ballast and an ignitor that provides the necessary starting voltage of about 3,000 to 5,000 volts. After ignition, the lights will initially weak. Only after about 15 minutes, they reach full brightness.

High pressure sodium vapor lamps emit a very wide range spectrum of light. The color is yellow but over-emphasized. Common performance are 35, 50, 70, 100, 150, 250, 400, 700 and 1000 watts. Also, there are lamps with frosted glass bodies.

The mercury vapor high-pressure lamp contains a discharge tube made ​​of quartz (burner) that is associated with mercury and argon gas filled. The burner contains an ignition electrode, so that these lamps require a ballast operation only. The ignition takes place directly at the mains voltage of 230 volts.

The output light from mercury vapor lamps is about 3 times as lighter as the incandescent lamp, here is about 30-60 lm / W. The average lifespan is about 6 times greater, it is around 6000 hours. Without phosphorus on the inside of the glass spheres are light bluish-white color. Mercury vapor lamps require 3-5 minutes of heating, process re-ignition is possible only after cooling.

After startup process it barely lit first. Only when a certain quantity of mercury is vaporized and increasing the gas pressure in the burner, it will be brighter. Available in 50, 80, 125, 250, 400 and 700 watts.

Mercury vapor lamps Application
Mercury vapor lamps are used primarily for street lighting or floodlighting of sports fields and stadiums. Also for the illumination of churches, castles or large buildings, they are used.

Mercury vapor lamps Circuit
To limit the current in the circuit requires the lamp ballast. By this measure the power factor cos is reduced to about 0.5.

Compact fluorescent lamps or energy saving lamps have over regular bulbs for the same light efficiency a significantly lower power consumption – nearly 80 percent! Comparison between light bulbs and energy saving lamps is shown in the following table:

In addition, CFLs contain an electronic ballast which increases the operating frequency of the lamp to about 35 KHz. Due to this high frequency, the light is absolutely quiet and flicker-free. The lifetime of compact fluorescent lamps is much higher – they light about 8,000 to 10,000 hours, and therefore about 8 times longer than a normal light bulb! Nevertheless, there are also differences in the quality of compact fluorescent lamps! Cheap lamps generally produce a very cold light, which is often perceived as unpleasant. Here you need take up even better products, a pleasant and warm light to generate even have several years of warranty! Even today, compact fluorescent lamps are often surrounded by pear-shaped glass bulb,which the light bulbs are quite similar.

Decomposed energy-saving lamp

Each energy saving lamp contains an electronic ballast. This is located in the base of the lamp. It generates the necessary voltage for the lamp. Since this is at high voltage, it must be treated with caution:

Never operate an opened energy saving lamp! Only open old unused lamps, which are no longer operated.

Compact fluorescent lamps with G23 base

In addition to the compact fluorescent lamps with screw bases with which it also called the G23 pin base. These lamps contain only the case with a conventional starter and ballast (choke) operation, which is located mostly in the power cord plug. The lamps themselves are U-shaped and can only in special versions (which contain the ballast) or be used in special space provided lights, containing the ballast plug in the power cord.

Fluorescent lamps Design and function
Fluorescent lamps are one of the gas discharge lamp. It consists of a glass tube, which with mercury vapor and an inert gas such as argon or krypton filled. The inside of the glass tube coated with phosphor. This converts the light generated in the operation of the ultraviolet light in a longer wavelength, ie, into visible light.

The lamp has two electrodes made of tungsten. By a short voltage pulse, the gas is ionized and therefore electrically conductive. To generate this ignition voltage, a ballast is required. Conventional control gear (CCG) consist of a choke coil and a starter. The starter consists of a neon lamp and bimetal. Parallel to the starter, a capacitor is connected to the radio interference suppression.

The ballast is connected in series with the fluorescent lamp. Parallel to the lamp is the starter. When switching a small current from the ballast flows through the first electrode of the lamp by the starter to the second electrode of the lamp and from there to the N-conductor. It comes to glow in the neon lamp to the starter. This heats the bimetal and which close to the neon lamp is shorted and goes out. Now, a high current from the ballast flows through the electrode of the lamp by the starter to the N-conductor. Due to the high current builds in the choke coil of the ballast to a magnetic field. Simultaneously by the high power of the lamp electrodes are heated. Electrons out from it.

Since the shorted glow lamp is not lit in the starter to cool the bimetal again – they open up again and the circuit is interrupted. This interruption of current flow causes a collapse of the magnetic field in the ballast. The collapsing magnetic field generated by the self-inductance of the choke coil a voltage surge of nearly 1000 volts. This high voltage is applied to the electrodes of the lamp and accelerates the electrons in the lamp at high speeds – the gas electrically conductive and light the lamp.

This usually runs from ignition process several times until it comes to a stable ignition. Therefore, fluorescent lamps flicker when turning several times until they light up. Since the ballast is an inductive resistor in the ground, this also has a power consumption which is around 10 watts. We must therefore not only the power of the fluorescent lamp to see solely, but must also add to the ballast! Nevertheless, the power consumption is significantly lower than the same light bulb!

A disadvantage of an individually-operated fluorescent lamp, is that it flickers to the rhythm of the line frequency of 50 Hz. Therefore, fluorescent lamps lamps are often offered as a double with two tubes in so-called double switch. This, the second lamp has a capacitive ballast. This leads to a phase shift of 180 degrees between two lamps, which cancels the flicker.

Today, apart from the conventional control gear(CCG), there are also electronic control gear (ECG). It is much more expensive, but it has several advantages:

• Soft in the lighting
• Low power dissipation
• With high-frequency operation, no blinking lights
• There is no reactive power compensation required

Finally, note:

Never broke a fluorescent light! Glass tube containing a small amount of mercury which toxic! Therefore, this lamp in any case should not disposed in the trash, but should be brought to the collection!

In 1879 he took a burned bamboo fiber as a filament, and reached 40 hours burn time. As he treated his carbon filaments with hydrocarbons, it reached a few hundred hours of burn time. So that his light bulb gradually improved. And what we need now is to supply electricity for incandescent lamps.

In 1881 held at Paris Edison presented dynamo to generate electricity, which is driven by a steam engine.  This made it possible to generate the electricity for its light bulbs. It was taken in 1882 in New York’s first public power station in operation, Edison has assisted in its construction. Allow the incandescent lamp gradually spreading out in the households.

Various Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp in the 20th century
At the beginning of the 20th Century were increasingly used as a filament made ​​of tungsten and tantalum metal threads. Today, the filament is made of tungsten or tungsten alloys. Tungsten has a very high melting point of about 3400 degrees C. Once the wire traversed by an electric current, it will heat up and begins to glow. The resistance of the wire will increase along with the increasing temperature. It is therefore very important that the lamp can be operated with voltages which suitable to them! A low voltage lights are not harmful, because of low current. It’s just going to reduce the luminosity from a light bulb.

Lights, now available for different voltages and in different sizes like 230 Volts AC and battery powered flashlight and like in motor vehicles.

Incandescent lamp Bases
incandescent lamps are available with different bases. The following table shows the standardized socket for lamps.

Edison base socket E5,5, E10, E14, E27, E40

Furthermore, also known as bayonet sockets are used, which was introduced by Joseph Wilson Swan and hence also called the Swan socket. They are secure against loosening caused by vibration and is often used for light bulbs in the areas of automotive and machinery.

Bajonettsockel BA9s, BA15s, BA15s, BAZ15d

Battery care tips

Never buy batteries for stock!
During long storage battery has a certain self-discharge, and this will increase at higher temperatures. Batteries are depleted (also alkali-manganese batteries!) May leaks, it is partly demonstrated by the fact that it has been stored in the contact of a white powder (potassium hydroxide). It is corrosive and corrodes all the metal parts that come into contact with it.

Do not use different batteries in one device!
For any reason, do not mix new cells and cells used. Every chain is only as strong as its weakest link. One cell is weak, will lower the total system voltage, although other cells are new.

Always check the correct polarity!
Battery providing a DC voltage, which always has a polarity. It is always important. Reverse polarity often lead to damage.

Do not ever try to recharge the battery!
Primary cells are not rechargeable and destroyed in the attempt.

Avoid short circuit!
With the continuous short-circuit the battery may become hot. There is also a risk of exploding and things are not funny. Therefore, the battery should be stored in such a way as to avoid short circuits.

Do not ever try to open the battery!
Batteries contain hazardous materials and corrosive.

Remove the batteries in device when not in use!
Leaking batteries corroded contacts can damage the device. Corroded battery contacts can not be repaired.

Expired batteries should be removed immediately!
Residues of the expired batteries of the the device should be removed as much as possible and thoroughly cleaned repository.

Do not throw batteries in the trash!
They contain harmful substances and environmental pollutants, Today batteries can also be disposed to the dealer.

Basic information on rechargeable batteries
One important nominal size of the battery is its capacity. This capacity is measured in ampere hours (AH) or milliamperes hours (mAh). Capacity is described as follows: A battery with a capacity of 800 mAh can supply 800 mA in 1 hour, or 200 mA in 4 hours.

When the energy is fed back in the battery which previously was taken from it. This is done by providing a DC voltage higher from the battery voltage. Charging current should be approximately 1 / 10 from the current capacity of the battery. Example: A battery with a capacity of 800 mAh must have 80 mA charging current. Theoretically, the charging time of about 10 hours. However, because the loss will lead to much longer charging time, which is around 12 to 14 hours.

Discharge voltage is the minimum voltage at which the battery can be discharged without damage. Even a single Discharge can damage the battery. More cells that are present, deep Discharge lead to reversal from the the cells with the lowest capacity.

In contrast, gives the final charging voltage at the highest voltage value at which a battery can be recharged.

Memory effect occurs in the older batteries, sinterednickel-cadmium batteries. If this is often not fully discharged, but only for certain parts, with the loss occurs as the battery capacitywill see this condition.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
Nickel-cadmium batteries are now out of desain because they contain harmful heavy metal cadmium. According to an EU directive from 2006 nickel cadmium batteries with more than 0.002 weight percent cadmium are prohibited. So they are gradually disappeared from the market, but today spread among the consumers yet.
When nickel-cadmium battery cell delivers 1.25 volts. The charging current should be about 1 / 10 their capacity as described above. If one uses a ready-charger, you should make a correct charging current.

Nickel-cadmium batteries typically have a high self-discharge. If they are not used, for example, one or two months, they become vacant. Like my LED flashlight battery always empty when I have not used it once a month. Nickel-cadmium batteries must be filled and discharged regularly. Discharge voltage of 0.85 to 0.9 volts.

Nickel-cadmium batteries when its not used for a long time, they often get an internal short circuit. It can be easily known with a multimeter. If the voltage of battery only 0 volt , then there is an internal short circuit! In this case, there is  one way that can be tried, for example, to supply the DC power flow of high currents 3 amperes for a short time, for example, by a battery. Is often, the short circuit is removed and so you can charge the battery back to normal afterwards.

Nickel-metal hydride batteries (NiMH)
Nickel-metal hydride batteries are now taken the place of the nickel-cadmium batteries. They contain no toxic heavy metals more and have higher capacity. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a voltage of 1.25 to 1.5 volt per cell, and tolerate a higher charging current than nickel-cadmium batteries.

Nickel-metal hydride batteries used to have a high self-discharge. The self-discharge increases with rising temperature and with increasing capacity of the battery. You should therefore always be charged and discharged regularly. If they are not used for a longer time, then they are mostly empty and have to be recharged.

Since 2006, nickel-metal hydride batteries are pro with a significantly lower self-discharge rate of only about 15 percent a year.

Lead Acid Batteries
The lead-acid battery contains two electrodes, which is one of the other lead and lead oxide. When dilute sulfuric acid electrolyte is used.

The battery is charged, then released from the plates and sulfuric acid while water consumed. This reduces the internal resistance of the battery.

When unloading the process is reversed: Water is then released and sulfuric acid bound as lead sulfate. This increases the internal resistance of the battery. This is also the reason why is no longer a fully charged battery (and also for each battery!), The voltage goes directly into the knee if you connect a load to this! Some lead-acid batteries must be regularly refill of distilled water. Today, however,, there are mostly maintenance free battery charging where distilled water is not required.

There is also the dry lead acid batteries, lead acid batteries. They are completely maintenance free and also available in smaller sizes such as 7 Ah. Also, they tolerate it quite well if they are used only once in a while.

When lead-acid battery, each cell provides about 2 volts. The 12 V lead-acid battery contains six cells so. The lowest allowable voltage, called the discharge voltage is about 1.7 volts per cell, ie, 10.2 volts for a 12 V lead-acid battery. They must never be exceeded, otherwise the battery will damage the cells and can not recharge completely.

The charging current should be about 1 / 10 of battery capacity. With a lead-acid battery with 7 Ah, the charging current is about 0.7 amps.

The final charging voltage is 12 V lead-acid battery at 13.8 volts. Is exceeded and they continue to charge the battery, uses the gassing, ie, water is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen. This mixture is known as a hydrogen-oxygen and can cause an explosion! It is therefore particularly important to ensure that a lead battery is not overcharged.

If a lead acid battery for a long time is not used, will form on the plates of a non-conductive oxide layer. As a result can not recharge the battery. At this case you can try to destroy the short term by applying a high voltage of eg 30 volts, this non-conducting oxide layer on the plates. If It successful, the battery can be recharged and then became normal again.

Battery Cell types :

Zinc-carbon cell
Also referred to as zinc-manganese dioxide or elements Leclanche cell. It contains zinc electrode (anode) and one of manganese dioxide (cathode) with a solution of ammonium chloride as the electrolyte. Battery voltage is 1.5 volts per cell. Zinc-carbon battery cheap in manufacturing, but now replaced by cell-outsmart manganese. They also can end up after discharge and corroded contacts in the device.

Alkali manganese cell
It is a further development of the zinc-carbon cell and contains a zinc electrode (anode) and one of manganese dioxide (cathode). The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide solution (KOH) is used. The voltage is 1.5 volts per cell. Alkali-manganese batteries have today largely replaced carbon zinc batteries. They have a higher capacity and are usually manufactured as round cells. Sometimes one reads that Akali-manganese batteries at deep discharge will not leak.

Sometimes we read that alkali-manganese batteries at deep discharge will not leak. It can not be ensured. Because the fact a lot of battery leakage at least a half, when placed long-term (years) in the device, or still in their original packaging! It then forms a white powder (potassium hydroxide deposits) in the contact, which is corrosive and eats away all the metal parts that come into contact with it.

Zinc-silver oxide cell
It contains a zinc electrode (anode) and silver oxide (cathode). The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide solution (KOH) is used. The voltage per cell is 1.55 volts. Zinc-silver oxide cells have a high energy density and are often produced as a button cell.

Lithium cell
Lithium has the highest negative potential of all metals. It is used as material for the cathode. This results in a high cell voltage is calculated 3.0 to 3.7 volts. Since lithium reacts with water, only to be used as a non-aqueous electrolyte, aprotic electrolyte solutions or solid electrolytes. They are produced as a button and round cells and have a long life.

The following two tables list is the most important types of batteries. The first table contains rounded cells, and the second is a flat battery block.

An audio transformer is a the transformer which has primary role to provide galvanic isolation between an audio equipment.
Transformer is to work with a relatively low voltage level, and in a frequency range that can extend the audio bandwidth (20Hz to 20KHz) or more. The manufacture of the transformer is relatively difficult if you want decent performance. Therefore, these components are expensive, some manufacturers have perfect control of manufacturing technology.

The use of the transformer in the audio is sometimes criticized for “accidents” that can interfere with the bandwidth or simply because of its size. Transformer can do things that are very difficult to do only with the electronic components: a perfect galvanic isolation (no risk of ground loops), high natural frequency filtering (limit the radio reception on the ground a low level), and especially without any addition of noise. In the picture above you can see everything on the left, a Audio transformer (cylinder) to be integrated directly into the microphone body. Another transformer is intended for use with line level audio amplitude.

Usability of Quartz
The quartz used in all transmission equipment like CB, FM transmitters, wireless microphone quality Walky Talky (eg, a quartz 27.125 MHz, which corresponds to 14 channel CB band) in computers. In some video equipment too, such as PAL or SECAM encoders, where a crystal of 4.43 MHz is used for the color subcarrier (chroma). You can also find quartz in equipment providing audio analog to digital conversion (or vice versa). The oscillation frequency of the quartz is not necessarily used directly, it can be divided to obtain an easier way. For example, a wireless microphone may include a frequency synthesizer, which makes use of a single crystal, but which can nevertheless offer 1440 different channels, each with a frequency stability that depends on that of quartz. In an audio analog to digital converter, a single crystal can easily be used to generate a clock to 32 KHz to 44.1 KHz or 48 KHz. For the equipment requiring better stability than that offered by quartz (television transmitter for example), used the VCXO (Voltage-Controlled Crystal Oscillator).

A practical and less ‘technical’: take a sample to show you … for quartz. It contains quartz (typically 32.768 kHz) are allows the exact timing of the clock. Divide with 2 consecutive values ​​of quartz, until the result is no longer an integer (division with 2 is very easy to do in electronics). What do you get? 1 hertz. And 1 Hz in accordance with a period of 1 second, which could form the basis of time.